Suchergebnisse

Palm oil expansion in tropical forest margins captures headlines, primarily out of concern that encroachment to tropical forest causes environmental problem and ignites social issues [1]. Sustainability has to be understood in the wider context of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), rather than as primarily a plot-level ecological concern about persistence of production, to make sense of the debate that has become a very polarized and find ways forward. Cascading ecological and social issues have caused a loss of trust, (threats of) consumer boycotts and multiple standards and certification responses. Diverse sustainability issues have come up as part of a public issue-attention cycle with five recognisable stages [2]: A) Agenda setting, B) Better and widely shared understanding of what is at stake, C) Commitment to common principles, D) Details of devils derailing operations, devolved to (newly created or existing) formal institutions that handle implementation and associated budgets, and E) Efforts to monitor and evaluate effects. In Indonesia two phases of new establishment of palm oil coexist within a forest transition gradient: (i) (industry-led) expansion into new forest margins with many social and ecological consequences; and (ii) (often farmer-led) conversion of existing agroforestry and tree crop (often rubber-based) or pasture economies in mosaic landscapes. External consumer concerns refer to the expansion phase, rather than to production sustainability or issues of smallholder concern. However, certification standards are only partially adjusted to the latter. After a 'voluntary industry standards' phase of differentiation with and shifting blame to non-certified others [3], government involvement in Malaysia and Indonesia suggests that standards and certification can trickle down to enforceable good practice standards for all. This can learn from past ineffective policies that did not address the real issues in local context [4]. On the other hand, subnational jurisdictional entities are the scale at which oil palm production can be balanced with other goals, such as forest conservation and smallholder welfare. This needs a supportive and clear national policy support that combines clarity on forest protection (as in the now permanent moratorium), with support for risk-reducing diversified smallholder oil palm production systems [5,6] and international communication that acknowledges past problems but shows Indonesia is ready to move on, connecting all the dots of sustainable development goals.

SamenvattingDe meeste farmacologen gebruiken het dier als model voor de mens. Hoewel goede registratietechnieken thans rechtstreeks farmacologisch onderzoek bij de mens in veel meer gevallen mogelijk maken dan bij het ontstaan van de experi‐mentele farmacologie in de 19e eeuw, blijft het noodzakelijk, zoveel mogelijk informatie over de farmacologische werking van een stof in dierproeven te ver‐zamelen, voordat deze voor de eerste keer aan mensen toegediend wordt.Soms trekt de farmacoloog uit de informatie welke de dierproef leverde ver‐keerde conclusies. Voor kwalitatief verschil in werking bij mens en dier bestaat achteraf vaak een bevredigende verklaring, welke gebruikt kan worden om de voorspellende werking van toekomstige dierproeven te vergroten. De mogelijkheid om uit dierproeven bijwerkingen bij de mens te voorspellen is categorisch beperkt; met deze beperkingen blijkt de dierproef toch nuttige informatie te kunnen leveren.Onderzoek van de regressie van de log dosis op log lichaamsgewicht laat zien, dat er tussen de werkzame dosis voor dier en mens (M.M. geldt dit ook voor de toxische dosis) een duidelijker verband bestaat dan meestal aangenomen wordt.

Migration connects land use in areas of origin with areas of new residence, impacting both through individual, gendered choices on the use of land, labor, and knowledge. Synthesizing across two case studies in Indonesia, we focus on five aspects: (i) conditions within the community of origin linked to the reason for people to venture elsewhere, temporarily or permanently; (ii) the changes in the receiving community and its environment, generally in rural areas with lower human population density; (iii) the effect of migration on land use and livelihoods in the areas of origin; (iv) the dynamics of migrants returning with different levels of success; and (v) interactions of migrants in all four aspects with government and other stakeholders of development policies. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions in the study areas showed how decisions vary with gender and age, between individuals, households, and groups of households joining after signs of success. Most of the decision making is linked to perceived poverty, natural resource and land competition, and emergencies, such as natural disasters or increased human conflicts. People returning successfully may help to rebuild the village and its agricultural and agroforestry systems and can invest in social capital (mosques, healthcare, schools).

Representing more than 80% of the total rubber areas, smallholder rubber plantations and its system, in Indonesia, are very unique in the world. The system, often referred to as "jungle rubber" is multi-strata in nature, and rubber is not the only crop harvested from the system but many other timber trees (usually through natural regeneration), fruit trees and annual crops are inter-cropped. These multi-strata systems have multiple functions - income source for many smallholder farmers, biodiversity and water conservation and carbon sequestration. Large efforts have been done by the Indonesian Government to improve the rubber productivity of traditional cultivation system by converting to more intensive monoculture systems. However, the rate of adoption of this technology is very slow considering the area of rubber in Indonesia. Taking into account the positive aspects of traditional rubber agroforestry ICRAF, CIRAD and IRRI worked jointly to develop and field test various improved Rubber Agroforestry System (RAS) that can provide smallholder farmers more appropriate alternatives to monoculture rubber. In all trials, recommended germplasm of rubber clones is used instead of conventional rubber seedlings. A network of trial-cumdemonstration RAS plots has been established in different provinces in Indonesia since mid nineties. The results from the wide network provided various adaptations; especially in terms of management intensity (weeding, fertilizer application) made by farmers and indicated feasible technology that farmers can benefit from. Rubber clones PB 260, RRIC 100 and BPM1 were compared with local seedlings in terms of plant growth. With lessons from earlier work, new demonstration plots of improved RAS have been established Aceh Barat District in NAD.

Smallholder rubber plantations in Indonesia, representing more than 80% of the total rubber areas, are very unique in the world. Most smallholder rubber areas are multi-strata in nature. Rubber is not the only perennial crop in that area, but also mixed with timber trees (forest re-growth), fruit trees, and different annual crops. Scientists identified these multistrata systems or called "Jungle Rubber" have multiple functions such as main income source for many farmers; keeping certain level of the forest biodiversity; Carbon sequestration; soil and water conservation. Many efforts have been done by the Indonesian Government to improve the productivity of jungle rubber through monocuture system such as Nucleolus Estate for Smallholding (NES); Project Management Unit (PMU); and Partial System. However, the rate of rubber replanting through those specific projects are too small compared to the total rubber areas in Indonesia. Taking into account the positive aspects of the Rubber Based Agroforestry Systems (RAS), ICRAF, CIRAD and IRRI worked jointly to implement various RAS systems in order to provide farmers better technological options for managing their farms. Results presented in this paper are collected from both on-station and on-farm research. At on-station, rubber planted at a double rows spacing (6m x 2m x 14m) with and without perennial intercrops was monitored and compared to that of the normal spacing (6mx3m). Rubber girth with double row spacing reached tappable size at five years after planting and similar to that planted with normal spacing. Rubber growth at the plot planted with Acacia mangium a very fast growing tree, at the same time with rubber, was very slow: a haft of that of the other treatments. If the fast growing trees are planted two years after rubber planting, then rubber growth is similar to that of normal spacing. Three types of RAS were tested at farmers' plots (RAS1, RAS2, and RAS3). The total number of participants is about 150 farmers, in 100 ha plots, distributed in Jambi, West Kalimantan, West Sumatra and South Sumatra. Results of clone comparison in RAS1 type of trial (maintenance only on rubber rows) showed that rubber growth variability was more due to the variability of farmers' plots and frequencies of weeding. Rubber clones such as PB 260; BRIC 100 and BPM1 planted under RAS1 can adapt the RAS conditions and can be tapped at 5-7 years after planting. These findings provide farmers alternatives to develop more environmentally friendly and divers systems in their farms, compared to that of monoculture system. This paper presents also various results related to more intensive RAS (RAS1 and RAS3).